Incidences of heavy rainfall are increasing with the warming climate — and at a rate higher than current climate models have predicted, researchers warn.

A study published today (8 August) in Science finds that the increase in rainfall is much larger than previously predicted, suggesting that current models may be inadequate in predicting the impact of climate change on rainfall patterns.

A team of UK and US researchers used satellite data from 1988–2004 to look at how changes in temperature and atmospheric moisture affect rainfall in the tropics.

They found that the frequency of heavy rainfall was strongly associated with increasing temperatures — results that agree with current climate predictions.

"We saw a distinct signal of the increased frequency of increased rainfall as the tropics warmed up and then a reduction as the tropics cooled down," says Richard Allan, a researcher at the Environmental Systems Science Centre in the University of Reading, United Kingdom, and co-author of the research.

Current climate models predict increases in heavy rainfall events, such as monsoons, in equatorial regions such as India and countries affected by the West African monsoon. This is matched by decreased rainfall in dry subtropical regions such as the Sahel region of Africa.

Increased rainfall occurs because the atmosphere can hold more water vapour as it warms, says Allan.

Some regions remain dry because the overall amount of rainfall doesn't increase. "The average rainfall can't keep up with the heavy rainfall so, to compensate, the regions away from the heavy rainfall will have to dry out slightly," Allan says.

He says the larger rainfall increases found in the new study might reflect limitations in current models. These may not pick up localised heavy rainfall events because their resolution isn't high enough.

"It would be useful to develop high resolution versions of the models to see if they can capture some of these rainfall events."

Allan adds that the large-scale circulation of the atmosphere also shifts the regions of high and low rainfall around the globe.

"One of the key things is to be able to understand how the atmosphere is going to respond to warming — not just how much the wet regions will get wetter, but how those regions are going to move around."

A separate study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (5 August), found a link between warming in the Indian Ocean and reduced rainfall in eastern and southern Africa, predicting a 15 per cent decrease in rainfall every 20–25 years.

The researchers suggest that human-caused warming has increased rainfall over the ocean, adding energy to the atmosphere and reducing the flow of moisture onshore. This brings dry air over the African continent, reducing rainfall.

heavy rain fall in islamabad

14 kms north east of Rawalpindi on the north eastern fringe of the Potohar plateau of the province of Punjab.

In the early days of independence it was felt that a new and permanent Capital City had to be built to reflect the cultures, traditions, hopes, aspirations and dreams of all diverse ethics, linguistic and regional groups that consituted the Pakistani nation. It was considered prudent and in the national interest to locate the Federal Capital where it could be isolated from the onslaught of business and commercial interests and yet be easily accessible from even the remotest corner of the country. In view of the Islamic ideology of the country the Federal Capital had be located closer to the Muslim areas of Centeral Asia and in close proximity of the fraternal people of Iran, Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia and Turkey. A commission was accordingly constitued in 1958 and entrusted with the task of selecting a suitable site for the National Capital with particular emphasis on location, climate, logistic, defence requirements, aesthetic, scenic and natural beauty. After the extensive research, feasibility studies and thorough review of various sites, the commission recommended the area Northeast of Rawalpindi. After the finaldecision of Cabinet the die was cast and there was no turning point. A Greek firm Doxiadis Associates drew up a master plan triangular in shape, based on a grid system, with its opex towards the Margalla Hills. The planners envisaged Islamabad eventully absorbing Rawalpindi entirely and stretching well to the West of Grand trunk road. It was the technical expertise of Doxiadis and course the dedication and hardwork of Pakistani engineers, technicians and workers which had turned Islamabad into the one of the most beautiful cities of the World. Pakistan's new Capital ISLAMABAD nestles against the backdrop of the Margalla Hills at the northern end of Pothowar Plateau. It offers a healthy climate, pollution free atmosphere, plenty of water and lush green area. It is a modern and carefully planned city with wide tree-lined streets, large houses elegant public buildings and well-organised bazars/markets/shopping centres. There are rarely crowds or traffic jams and few narrow lanes or slums; the walkways are shaded & safe and seperated from the traffic by rows of flame trees, jacarnda and hibiscus. Rosed, Jasmine & bougainvillea fill the parks and scenic viewpoints shoe the city to its best advantage. The city is divided into eight basic zones Administrative, diplomatic enclave, residential areas, educational sectors, industrial sectors. commercial areas, rural and green areas. Each sector has its own shopping area and public park. Islamabad today is the heart and soul of Pakistan, a city which symbolizes the aspirations of a young and dynamic nation that looks forward to a glorious future for its people, a city which welcomes modern ides but at the same time recognizes and cherishes its traditional values and its past history.

Heavy rainfall conditions expected for South Coast

The Newfoundland and Labrador Emergency Measures (NLEMO) has been advised by Environment Canada that the province could be affected by adverse weather conditions on the South Coast of Newfoundland. A heavy rainfall warning has been issued for St. Georges, Channel-Port aux Basques - Burgeo, Ramea - Connaigre, Burin Peninsula.

Environment Canada forecast: Rain heavy at times giving 50 to 70 millimetres today and tonight. A deep frontal trough of low pressure approaching from the west will move to lie over western Newfoundland Friday morning then over eastern sections in the evening. Strong southeast winds gusting to 100 km/h will develop well ahead of the trough over southern coastal sections today. Gusts up to 120 km/h are forecast at Wreckhouse. Winds will diminish tonight over western sections and Friday morning or afternoon over eastern sections. Additionally periods of rain, heavy at times, will accompany the trough. Rainfall amounts of 50 to 70 millimetres are forecast today, tonight, and Friday over southwestern Newfoundland and portions of the South Coast. The rain will taper to scattered showers Friday morning or afternoon behind the trough.

Municipalities, home and business owners and fish harvesters are advised to take every precaution to prevent damages that could be caused by any potential flooding. The public should be listening for updated forecasts and act accordingly.

Some steps to follow are:

Ensure all drains are free from debris, clean out window and door wells, close all windows etc.;

Ensure that sump pumps are working;

Remove, in a safe manner, dead tree branches from trees that could pose a hazard;

Ensure that cell phones are charged and that you have fresh batteries for a portable radio should the power go out;

Should basement flooding occur, ensure that the power is shut off at the main breaker before stepping into water. Care should be taken to prevent electrocution. If you are unsure call a licensed electrician;

Property owners should advise their municipal officials if they become aware of excessive flooding on streets or blocked drains or culverts;

Should you become aware of downed power lines, do not touch but advise your utility company immediately;

Municipalities are advised to ensure that all measures such as the clearing of storm sewers, culverts, bridges, drains, etc. are free from debris and that emergency personal are available should the need arise.

All residents are advised to use caution in undertaking theses preventative measures. NLEMO is maintaining close contact with Environment Canada to monitor the progress of these weather systems.

HEAVY RAINFALL IN CANADA

Flooding due to heavy rainfall requires 2 conditions to be met: 1) heavy rainfall, and 2) the inability of the soil to absorb this rainfall. Only the first of these is addressed with the data and information provided on this website (http:// www.hazards.ca).

Land slope, elevation, the type of land surface (i.e. vegetation, pavement) and soil conditions (e.g. soil type, antecedent moisture content, frozen or non-frozen) will strongly influence the location and severity of flooding. For example, an identical rainfall total occurring with different soil conditions can lead to very different flood potentials. Within Ontario, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Conservation Authorities are responsible for forecasting where and when flooding is likely to occur and issuing flood warnings as required. The flood forecasts and warnings are based on guidance provided by the Meteorological Service of Canada weather forecasts and warnings. For more information on flood forecasts and warnings in Ontario, please refer to the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources website:
http:// www.mnr.gov.on.ca/ MNR/ water/ p767.html.

In Ontario, Environment Canada issues the following types of weather warnings related to heavy rainfall:

Severe Thunderstorm Warning

One of the three criteria for issuing a Severe Thunderstorm Warning in Ontario is related to heavy rainfall. This type of Severe Weather Warning is issued in Ontario when one or more of the following is expected to occur (Environment Canada, 2001):

• Wind gusts of 90 km/ hour or more;
• Hail of 2 cm in diameter or larger;
• Rainfall of 50 mm or more in one hour OR 75 mm or more within 3 hours.

'DAYS WITH', 'EXTREME DAILY' AND 'DATE OF LAST OCCURRENCE' RAINFALL DATA

Data for the 'days with', 'extreme daily' and most recent 'date of extreme daily' rainfall graphics on this website ( http:// www.hazards.ca ) was extracted from Environment Canada's National Climate Data Archive. Only climate and weather observing stations with at least 20 years of rainfall record were used in the data analyses. Not all climate stations used in the analyses are still operating. For the 'date of last occurrence' maps, stations with data records ending prior to 1998 are indicated. The data is also available from the Environment Canada Climate Normals website (Environment Canada, 2003a):
http:// climate.weatheroffice.ec.gc.ca/ climate_normals/ index_e.html

Note: The variation and frequency of heavy rainfall amounts over short distances is largely related to the track and scale of storm systems but can also be influenced by local factors which include topography and proximity to large moisture sources (i.e. the Great Lakes). The density of stations in the existing rain gauge measuring network may not be sufficient to capture all of these local variations in daily rainfall.

"ATMOSPHERIC HAZARDS IN ONTARIO" MAPS

FLOOD#1 - 24 HOUR PEAK (25 YEAR RETURN PERIOD) ESTIMATED RAINFALL AMOUNTS (mm)

This contoured map refers to the estimated 24 hour rainfall amount (mm) that can be expected to be reached or exceeded once every 25 years, on average, for areas of south-central-eastern Ontario (Auld and MacIver, 2000). The 25 year return period estimated rainfall amount may also be described as the estimated 24-hour peak estimated rainfall amount that has a 1 in 25 chance of being reached or exceeded each year. The analysis is based on Ontario climate station data for each station's period of record up to and including 1993.

FLOOD#2 - TOTAL NUMBER OF HEAVY RAINFALL EVENTS BY ENVIRONMENT CANADA PUBLIC FORECAST REGION (1979-2004)

For the purposes of this Environment Canada analysis (MSC-Ontario Region, 2005d), a heavy rainfall event was considered to have occurred when rainfall of 50 mm or more in one hour or 75 mm or more within 3 hours was observed. This corresponds to the same rainfall thresholds included in Environment Canada's Severe Thunderstorm warning criteria. The heavy rainfall events for the period 1979-2004 were plotted by occurrence within each of the individual Environment Canada public forecast regions (for additional information on these regions, please refer to the Environment Canada (2005d) website:
http:// www.on.ec.gc.ca/ weather/ regions/ intro_e.html ).

Note: Care must be exercised when using this map as regional differences in heavy rainfall occurrence are not merely a function of severe weather climatology, but can also be greatly influenced by population, road density and distribution of volunteer severe weather observers. It is therefore more likely that the number of heavy rainfall events reported in a public forecast region with a higher density population/ road and observer network will be greater than in a region which has a lower density population/ road and observer network.

FLOOD#3, #4, #5 - AVERAGE NUMBER OF DAYS PER YEAR WITH DAILY RAINFALL EQUAL TO OR GREATER THAN 25 MM (1971-2000)

These maps show the average annual frequency of days with 25 mm or more rainfall at climate stations in Ontario (#3 provincial overview, #4 southern Ontario, #5 northern Ontario) based on the 30 year climate normals period, 1971-2000. Only climate stations with rainfall records greater than 20 years within this period were included. Some stations may no longer be in operation.

FLOOD#6,#8,#9 - EXTREME DAILY RAINFALL AMOUNT (mm)

The values plotted on these maps represent the extreme maximum daily rainfall (mm) recorded at climate stations in Ontario (#6 provincial overview, #8 southern Ontario, #9northern Ontario) over each climate station's period of record through 2002. Only stations with at least 20 years of rainfall record were included in the analysis. Some stations may no longer be in operation.

Note: Regional and local differences in extreme daily rainfall amounts may reflect varying length of climate station periods of record.

FLOOD#7 - MOST RECENT OCCURRENCE OF EXTREME DAILY RAINFALL

Station locations are plotted by colour code for the most recent date of occurrence of record daily rainfall (the extreme rainfall amounts are plotted in Map #6). Only climate stations with rainfall records greater than 20 years were included in the analysis. For those locations where the record daily rainfall has occurred in recent years (1998-2002), the station location dots are plotted in red. Orange and blue dots indicate that the record daily rainfalls were recorded during the period 1988-1997 and prior to 1988, respectively. Stations where the data records end prior to 1998 are also indicated on the map with a '+' symbol. The most recent dates of occurrence (day-month-year) of record daily rainfalls in Ontario are listed in the EXCEL spreadsheet 'FLOOD-Extremerainfall.xls', as indicated in the DATASETS summary below.

FLOOD#10, #11, #12, #13 - PERCENT OCCURRENCE OF CONSECUTIVE 3-DAY (#10), 5-DAY (#11), 7-DAY (#12) AND 10-DAY (#13) WET PERIODS

(MAY-SEP; 1971-2000 AND STATION PERIOD OF RECORD)

Consecutive wet days are a count of the number of consecutive days with a measurable amount of precipitation, i.e. daily precipitation >=0.2 mm. For this analysis, counts of the number of consecutive 3-, 5-, 7- and 10-day wet periods were calculated annually during the warm season (May through September) over each selected station's period of record and for the period 1971-2000 (MSC-Ontario 2006). A 3-day consecutive wet period is defined as 3 straight days with a measurable amount of precipitation. Once a 3-day wet period is defined, the next potentially 3-day wet period starts on the next wet day. The 5-, 7- and 10-day consecutive wet day periods are similarly defined. Hence, if there were 15 consecutive days with measurable precipitation, the counts would be as follows: 5 occurrences of 3-day wet periods, 3 counts of 5-day wet periods, 2 counts of 7-day wet periods and lastly, 1 count of a 10-day wet period.

The consecutive wet day counts were then converted to percent occurrence over the period May 1 to September 30 of each year. Within the May-September period, there are:

• 51 possible occurrences of consecutive 3-day wet periods

• 30 possible occurrences of consecutive 5-day wet periods

• 21 possible occurrences of consecutive 7-day wet periods

• 15 possible occurrences of consecutive 10-day wet periods

Therefore, for example, there is a 50 percent occurrence of consecutive 5-day wet periods from May 1 - September 30 in a specific year if these periods occur 15 times during the 153 days from May 1 to September 30.

The percent occurrence of consecutive 3-day wet periods per year that were recorded during the warm season, May through September, during the 30-year climate normal period, 1971-2000 at climate stations in Ontario is shown in FLOOD#10 map (MSC-Ontario 2006). Similarly, maps showing the percent occurrence number of consecutive 5-day, 7-day and 10-day wet periods at Ontario climate stations during May to September, 1971-2000, are provided in FLOOD#11, #12 and #13 maps, respectively (MSC-Ontario 2006). Precipitation data used in the consecutive wet day analysis was extracted from Environment Canada's National Climate Data Archive, with a total of 55 stations analysed for Ontario. Not all climate stations used in the analyses are still operating. In some cases, station precipitation records were extended by joining records from neighbouring stations.

Each of the consecutive wet-day period maps provided on the website is interactive. Clicking on an individual station circle on the map will provide a station's historical annual time series of percent occurrence of consecutive 3-day (5-day, 7-day or 10-day) wet periods over the station period of record (MSC-Ontario 2006). These graphs can be used to visually examine whether a given climate station is experiencing a trend towards a greater or lesser number of continuous wet days over the period of record.

An equivalent analysis of the consecutive 3-, 5-, 7- and 10-day dry periods is provided on the "DROUGHT" section of the website ( http:// www.hazards.ca ).

FLOOD#14 - ANNUAL AND SEASONAL PRECIPITATION AT 70^th PERCENTILE OR GREATER (DECILE ANALYSIS OVER STATION PERIOD OF RECORD)

Annual and seasonal precipitation data were arranged into annual and seasonal 'deciles' or tenths of the annual and seasonal precipitation distributions, respectively, over each station's long-term period of record (MSC-Ontario 2006a). A total of 55 stations were analysed for Ontario. For 49 of these stations, historical precipitation data was extracted from Environment Canada's National Climate Data Archive. For the remaining 6 stations (Beatrice 2, Geraldton A, Haliburton 3, Moosonee, Owen Sound MOE, Pickle Lake A) historical precipitation data was extracted from Environment Canada's special database of "adjusted" daily rain, snow and total precipitation amounts (Mekis and Hogg 1999; Environment Canada 2006), based upon the Environment Canada National Climate Archive historical station rainfall and snow ruler data. Separate adjustments were applied to daily rain and snow. For the rainfall analysis, corrections were made for each rain gauge type to account for wind undercatch, evaporation and gauge specific wetting losses. Corrections for "trace" amounts of rain were also added. For the snowfall analysis, snowfall density corrections specific to each location were applied to all snowfall ruler measurements. Corrections for "trace" amounts of snow were also added. Only climate and weather observing stations with at least 20 years of precipitation record were used in the data analyses. Not all climate stations used in the analyses are still operating. In some cases, station precipitation records were extended by joining records from neighbouring stations. For example, the "Haliburton 3" station precipitation data represents a station data join from three Haliburton climate stations, dating back to 1895.

For the purpose of this analysis, wet years are years when the precipitation (annual or seasonal) falls into the highest 3 deciles (i.e. the highest 30% of precipitation totals).

The annual precipitation totals were analysed over the calendar year, January-December, while the seasonal analysis was based on the seasons for each specific year being defined as:

Winter : December of previous year + January and February of given year

Spring: March, April and May of given year

Summer: June, July and August of given year

Autumn : September, October and November of given year

The precipitation analysis map provided on the Hazards website is interactive. Clicking on an individual station circle will provide a station's historical annual and seasonal time series of precipitation for each of the 55 selected sites over each station's period of record (MSC-Ontario 2006a). The wettest years or greatest 10% of precipitation totals in the station period of record (i.e. exceeding the 90^th percentile or 10^th decile) are plotted in purple, while years in the highest 9^th and 8^th deciles are shown in dark blue and blue, respectively. The remaining years over the station period of record where the annual (seasonal) precipitation is less than the 70^th percentile are plotted in white. The 50^th precipitation percentile value is also provided.

Heavy rains devastate Mexico, Central America and Caribbean

Mexico, Colombia, Central America and the Caribbean region have been scourged in recent days by heavy rainfalls and floods, killing hundreds and affecting at least 1.5 million people.

Tropical Storm Noel has caused heavy rainfall and flooding during this hurricane season, which started June 1 and is expected to end at the end of November, according to weather experts.

Noel became a hurricane on Friday as it passed through the Bahamas and affected Jamaica.

Experts said on Friday that the intensity of the heavy rain fallis increasing, causing more devastation due to climate change triggered by global warming.

Telephone services, electricity supplies and drinking water supplies were interrupted due to the floods in diverse zones of Mexico, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Cuba and Honduras.

Highways and roads in all the countries affected by the heavy rainfalls and floods have been blocked due to landslides.

The hardest-hit countries by Noel in the past days were the Dominican Republic and Haiti. In the former, the floods and landslides left at least 79 dead and 27 disappeared, while in Haiti it caused 40 deaths and 14 people were reported disappeared.

The United Nations (UN) has ordered immediate food aid be sent to the two Caribbean countries.

The floods in Mexico's southeastern Tabasco state have left at least one person dead and almost 1 million displaced from their homes.

In a press conference, Tabasco governor Andres Granier said on Friday that over 1 million people were displaced in the past 24 hours in Tabasco's 17 municipalities.

Mexican President Felipe Calderon on Friday ordered the armed forces to guarantee law and order to avoid looting in Tabasco state.

Calderon said there are currently over 7,500 soldiers and federal policemen helping the victims with helicopters and boats, among other vehicles to speed up the rescue tasks.

An extreme state of emergency remains throughout Tabasco, whereaid continues to arrive from different states and from Mexico City.

On Oct. 23, strong winds and waves caused a collision between Mexican's state oil company's (Pemex) oil platform and an oil drilling tower at sea, killing at least 21 workers in the Gulf of Mexico off the coast of Campeche state, bordering Tabasco.

In Cuba 30,000 people were evacuated from their homes due to heavy rains caused by Noel, mostly in the provinces of Holguin, Granma, Santiago de Cuba and Guantanamo.

In Honduras, the Permanent Contingency Commission (Copeco) declared a preventive alert due to Noel in the municipalities of Colon, Gracias a Dios, Atlantida and Bahia islands, located in the Caribbean area.

In mid October, another storm left at least 34 dead in Central America, five of them in Honduras.

The Disaster Attention and Prevention office of Colombia reported on Friday that at least 100,000 people need urgent aid after losing everything due to the heavy rainfall that has killed 13 and injured 21 people.

"The floods and landslides caused by the rainfall have affected61 municipalities in Colombia, but the higher risk regions are in the northern provinces of Magdalena and Bolivar," office director Luz Pulido said.

heavy rain in london

A snowstorm dropped up to 18 inches of snow in New England, USA. Boston's Logan International Airport was forced to close because of icing conditions. Ice coated the northeastern United States, due to frozen rain caused by moisture forced on top of Arctic air. (15th)

\item Heavy snow and frigid temperatures continued to grip Eastern and Central Canada Friday, forcing authorities to close schools and offices and call out the military. More than 26 cm of snow fell on Toronto since Tuesday and 111.2 cm fell since the beginning of the month. That accumulation beat historic records for the city dating back to 1871. (15th)

\item Adventurer Peter Hillary narrowly escaped death in a snap blizzard, the ice trekkers across Antarctica said. Australian Eric Philips described the panic felt by himself and fellow trekker Jon Muir when Hillary, who had fallen a short distance behind, "just disappeared." The trekkers are attempting to retrace the exploits of Robert Falcon Scott in 1912. "We were hit by this horrendous ground blizzard," Philips said. "The wind blew up to about 50 knots, we had less than 10 metres visibility." The extreme conditions faced by the trekkers on the polar plateau above the Shackleton Glacier included temperatures ranging down to -50C. (17th)

\item Heavy fog and black ice are blamed for dozens of accidents that closed a stretch of Interstate 94 southwest of Detroit, USA. Michigan State Police say about 50 cars were involved in the early morning pile-up near Oakwood Blvd., in the city of Allen Park, Mich. (17th)

two months after intense rains began to pound much of South America, rivers along the northwest coast of Peru remained flooded. The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA's Terra satellite captured the top image of the flooded river systems on April 1, 2008. Streams and pools of dark blue water dominate what was a tan-pink desert in early February, immediately before the rains began.
The images show the Sechura Desert in northwestern Peru near the border with Ecuador. The large image shows additional flooding extending north into Ecuador. To increase the contrast between muddy water and land, which often look the same in photo-like images, the image was made with both visible and infrared light. This false-color combination colors water black and dark blue and bare or sparsely vegetated earth tan. Plant-covered land is green, and clouds are turquoise and white.
Floods throughout Peru damaged farmland, homes, and transportation networks, reported the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. On February 28, the government of Peru declared a state of emergency in Piura and Lambayeque, the regions included in this image, and in Tumbes, the region immediately north of the area shown, and in Ucayali, a region in central Peru along the Brazilian border. More than 450,000 people were affected by flooding throughout Peru as of March 12, said the United Nations.

Raindrops impact at their terminal velocity, which is greater for larger drops. At sea level and without wind, 0.5 mm drizzle impacts at about 2 m/s, while large 5 mm drops impact at around 9 m/s.^[4] The sound of raindrops hitting water is caused by bubbles of air oscillating underwater. See droplet's sound.

Generally, rain has a pH slightly under 6. This is because atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolves in the droplet to form minute quantities of carbonic acid, which then partially dissociates, lowering the pH. In some desert areas, airborne dust contains enough calcium carbonate to counter the natural acidity of precipitation, and rainfall can be neutral or even alkaline. Rain below pH 5.6 is considered acid rain.

Effect on agriculture

Precipitation, especially rain, has a dramatic effect on agriculture. All plants need at least some water to survive, therefore rain (being the most effective means of watering) is important to agriculture. While a regular rain pattern is usually vital to healthy plants, too much or too little rainfall can be harmful, even devastating to crops. Drought can kill crops in massive numbers, while overly wet weather can cause disease and harmful fungus. Plants need varying amounts of rainfall to survive. For example, cacti need small amounts of water while tropical plants may need up to hundreds of inches of rain per year to survive.

Agriculture of all nations at least to some extent is dependent on rain. Indian agriculture, for example, (which accounts for 25 percent of the GDP and employs 70 percent of the nation's population) is heavily dependent on the rains, especially crops like cotton, rice, oilseeds and coarse grains. A delay of a few days in the arrival of the monsoon can, and does, badly affect the economy, as evidenced in the numerous droughts in India in the 90s.